King Menelik II: The Architect of Modern Ethiopia

Africa has always been a continent that takes great pride in its culture, norms and roots. The continent has been home to several visionary and revolutionary leaders who have recognised the importance of these values and fought resiliently for them, leaving indelible marks in the sands of its history. One such leader was King Menelik II of Ethiopia who fought for the freedom of the Ethiopian nation in the hands of self-imposed Italian saviours. 

As Thomas Hobbes once said, “life is nasty, brutish, and short.” The same could be said of the war that secured Ethiopia’s freedom from colonial rule—nasty, brutish, and short, yet crowned with a resounding victory. At the heart of this historic triumph was the Battle of Adwa, led decisively by King Menelik II.

Deploying a series of military strategies, King Menelik II not only upended an unjust Italian colonial ambition, he also successfully established Ethiopia as a notable power in international affairs. During his reign, he managed to expand the empire to the borders it currently occupies. Today, Ethiopia stands tall as a nation sprawling across approximately 1.1 million square kilometers (426,400 square miles), making it the 8th largest country in Africa. 

Early Life

Baptised as Sahle Maryam, King Menelik II was born in Ankoba, Ethiopia, to a rare union between Haile Melekot, the Prince of the Kingdom of Shewa, and Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo, a court servant. Through his father, Sahle Maryam’s lineage could be traced to a highly revered traditional line of rulers who claimed ancestry from the Solomonid Dynasty — a line of Ethiopian Emperors who were descendants of Menelik I, the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. 

His royal heritage, however, did not shield him from the turbulence of Ethiopia’s shifting political landscape. In 1855, during his youth, the ambitious Emperor Tewodros II launched a military campaign against the Kingdom of Shewa, bringing Menelik’s world into direct conflict with imperial power. During this conflict, his father who was king at the time died, leading to the eventual defeat and absorption of Shewa into the centralised Ethiopian Empire under Tewodros’s rule. As a result, Menelik was taken from Shewa and brought to the imperial court as a political hostage, a common tactic used by Tewodros to suppress regional rivals and secure loyalty among the nobility. Despite the circumstances, his time at the imperial court exposed him to the broader dynamics of Ethiopian politics and leadership, experiences that would shape his future as one of the most transformative rulers in Ethiopian history.

Back in Shewa, the Emperor’s grip on the region was becoming increasingly unstable. Menelik’s uncle had initially been appointed as the Shum (governor) of Shewa, but had revolted against the Emperor's rule. In response,the Emperor removed him and replaced him with a non-royal official named Ato Bezabeh. However, this move backfired, as Bezabeh also betrayed the Emperor’s trust. As these conflicts brewed, Shewan royals imprisoned alongside Menelik, deeply disturbed by the erosion of royal tradition, particularly in response to the appointment of a non-royal to the throne. These series of events culminated in a plot to help Menelik, the rightful heir to the throne escape from the imperial court. In 1865, this plot was successfully executed and Menelik escaped, marking the beginning of his return to power as Menelik of Shewa. Enraged by the escape and the deepening insubordination in Shewa, Emperor Tewodros II responded with brutal retaliation. He ordered the execution of 29 hostages and commanded 12 Shewan notables to be beaten to death with bamboo rods.

Kingship

Upon returning to Shewa, Menelik proclaimed himself Negus (King) of Shewa. He successfully usurped power from Bezabeh as thousands of Shewans rallied to the rightful heir. However, Menelik’s ambitions did not end with Kingship, he also desired to become Emperor and began with great subtlety and strategy to orchestrate his ascent to the Emperor’s throne. Also in line for the throne was a rival—Kassai—who was eventually crowned Emperor Yohannes IV, successfully succeeding the throne.

Meanwhile, Menelik’s strategic plan continued. He struck alliances with countries that could provide firearms and political leverage, built friendships with Muslims and organised extravagant feasts to win the favour of locals. He became popular among his subjects and readily made himself available to them. 

On the 10th of March 1989, the sitting Emperor, Yohannes IV was killed in war and with his dying breath, declared Dejaemach Mengesha Yohannes as his heir. However, upon hearing news of the death of Yohannes IV, Menelik declared himself the new Emperor. He had  a strong argument for his action on his side. Menelik pointed out that Yohannes claimed descent from King Solomon and Queen Sheba through females of the dynasty while he was procreated from an uninterrupted and direct male lineage. 

Menelik’s claim gave him the allegiance of a vast majority of Ethiopian nobility and on the 3rd of November 1889, he was consecrated and crowned Emperor of Ethiopia at the Church of Mary, Mount Entoto. 

Thus began the reign of a King argued to be the founder of modern Ethiopia. His tenure was riddled with internal wars and rebellions against his rulership, as well as conquests and consolidations of neighboring regions, including Oroma, Jimma, Chebo, Welega province, Harar, Somalis, Shanqella and others. Some of these were peaceful and others were brutal. 

In 1870, Menelik officially consolidated the South, East and West into an empire. Territories consolidated peacefully enjoyed self-governance while regions incorporated after war installed new rulers mandated to respect their human rights. Torture, mass killings, slavery and brutality were, however, prevalent in conquered regions. 

The Establishment of Addis Ababa as a Capital City

The origins of Ethiopia’s modern capital, Addis Ababa, are closely tied to Empress Taytu Betul, the third wife of Menelik II. During one of Menelik’s military campaigns, specifically the one that led to the conquest of Harar, Empress Taytu chose to establish camp near a natural hot spring located just south of Mount Entoto. Captivated by the area's temperate climate and natural beauty, she had a permanent residence constructed there. She named the place Addis Ababa, meaning "new flower" in Amharic.

What began as the Empress’s personal retreat soon evolved into the heart of a growing city. Menelik allocated his generals land nearby, thereby encouraging them to build their homes nearby, and in 1889, construction began on a new royal palace, solidifying the area as the political center of his expanding empire. The settlement grew rapidly. By 1910, Addis Ababa had a permanent population of roughly 70,000 people, with tens of thousands more residing there temporarily. The city’s development continued even after Menelik’s death, and in 1917, it was finally connected to the port of Djibouti by railway, linking Ethiopia more directly with international trade and communication.

The Battle of Adwa

The events that led to one of Africa’s most celebrated military victories began not on the battlefield, but at the negotiating table. In 1889, shortly after claiming the imperial throne, Menelik signed what was supposed to be a treaty of friendship and mutual recognition with Italy — the Treaty of Wuchale. The agreement, signed at the town of Wuchale, was intended to define the territorial boundaries between the Ethiopian Empire and the newly established Italian colony of Eritrea. It included clauses designed, at least on the surface, to ensure mutual respect, peaceful trade, and unhindered transit of goods, particularly military supplies, across the border. Specific territories such as Arafali, Halai, Segeneiti, and Asmara were acknowledged as falling under Italian control. In return, Italy pledged not to harass Ethiopian merchants and guaranteed Ethiopia’s ownership of key religious sites like the Monastery of Debre Bizen, on the condition they wouldn’t be used for military purposes.

However, the Italians chose to be cunning, creating two versions of the treaty, one in Italian and one in Amharic. Unknown to Menelik, the Italian version contained a critical clause that gave Italy the authority to represent Ethiopia in foreign affairs, effectively making the empire a protectorate. The Amharic version, which Menelik signed in good faith, made no such concession. When Menelik discovered the discrepancy, he rejected the treaty outright, refusing all bribes and intimidation efforts by the Italians. Even Ras Mengesha of Tigray (heir to the previous Emperor), whom Italy hoped to use as a wedge of discord against Menelik, through a civil war, refused to serve as a pawn when he realised the freedom of Ethiopia was at stake. The Italians, humiliated and furious, opted for war and launched an invasion on Ethiopia. 

By late 1895, Menelik had rallied Ethiopia's regional powers under a single cause: to defend the nation’s independence and its faith. In his now-famous proclamation, he called upon his nobles, warriors, and the faithful alike to rise against the invaders, invoking both divine justice and ancestral duty. Nobles across the empire raised their banners, bringing thousands of warriors under Menelik’s command. The Italians, underestimating Ethiopia’s resolve and strength, believed Menelik could field no more than 30,000 men. Instead, the Emperor mobilized an army estimated at over 100,000 — a rare and unified national force.

Though dismissed by European powers as a “barbaric” force, the Ethiopian army was not only massive, it was well-armed. Menelik had spent years procuring modern rifles, artillery, and ammunition from European allies. His troops had been trained in their use, and the result was a disciplined, confident force prepared for modern warfare. Moreover, these acquired machinery were all superior to Italian rifles and artillery.

On the 7th of December 1895, Menelik personally led the Ethiopian army to attack its opponent at Boota Hill. The result was catastrophic for the Italian forces who were forced to retreat. This particular battle was known as the battle of Amba Alagi which ended with a loss of 1,000 men of the 2,150 deployed by the Italian force, as well as of 20 officers.

Ras Makonnen, one of Menelik’s most trusted generals, also dealt Italy several blows, routing the Italian troops and later laying siege to their fort at Mekele. Eventually, the garrison, cut off from water and food, surrendered, but Menelik shocked the world by allowing them to walk free. He declared his quarrel was not with the conscripted soldiers but with the imperial ambitions of Italy’s government, a move that baffled his enemies and boosted his moral standing across Europe.

But Italy was not done. More troops (15,000 men) were dispatched to the region, and Menelik’s army, strained by the long campaign and limited supplies, began to retreat. Yet, under pressure from Rome, the Italian general Baratieri launched a hasty offensive to reclaim initiative. It was a costly mistake.

On the morning of March 1, 1896, under the highlands of Adwa, the two forces clashed. Menelik's coalition, including generals like Ras Alula, Ras Makonnen, and Empress Taytu herself commanding a contingent, struck with precision and overwhelming force. The Italians, poorly coordinated and split across rugged terrain, were utterly unprepared. Ethiopian forces crushed the invaders, capturing thousands and killing nearly half of the Italian force.

The scale and decisiveness of the victory sent shockwaves across the world. At a time when European powers carved up Africa with impunity, Ethiopia had not only resisted but humiliated a modern European army. As a result of the battle, Eritrea lay vulnerable to Menelik and could have easily been taken. However, recognising the risk of Italy bearing down on Ethiopia with its full force, remained an adept strategist, choosing diplomacy over further bloodshed. 

Instead, he negotiated from a position of strength. The Treaty of Addis Ababa was therefore created and signed, forcing Italy to recognise Ethiopia’s full independence. France and Britain, wary of Italian ambitions and now respecting Ethiopia's power, signed on to enforce the peace. For the first time in modern colonial history, an African power had dictated the terms of victory and the world had no choice but to listen.

Foreign Policy

With the ink barely dry on the Treaty of Addis Ababa in 1896, Ethiopia stood proudly among sovereign nations, a reality European powers could no longer ignore. Menelik’s crushing victory at Adwa had rewritten the rules. No longer was Ethiopia treated as a remote, irrelevant territory in the African interior; now, it was a player on the continental stage.

France and Britain, whose colonial interests bordered Ethiopia on all sides, wasted no time in securing diplomatic relations. French influence rose rapidly, so much so that by March 1897, Menelik signed a formal treaty of alliance with France, shifting the balance of power in the Horn of Africa. The British, deeply alarmed by the growing French presence near the Blue Nile, scrambled to protect their own interests in Egypt. Their response came in the form of the Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897, which not only ensured peaceful relations but also guaranteed Ethiopia’s control over the Haud, a key grazing territory in the Somali region.

Menelik proved a master of balancing global powers. He entertained envoys from the Mahdist state in Sudan, received missions from Italy’s rivals, and engaged in diplomatic maneuvering that kept Ethiopia sovereign while pressing forward its borders. Ethiopia became a state no longer courted through conquest, but through treaties, negotiations, and international diplomacy and that was due, in no small part, to Menelik’s keen grasp of geopolitics.

Modernisation Graces Ethiopia

Menelik’s vision for Ethiopia extended far beyond the battlefield. Inspired by Western technology but grounded in local reality, he embarked on a mission to modernise the empire on his own terms.

In 1894, he signed an agreement allowing the construction of a railway linking Addis Ababa to the French-controlled port of Djibouti. This was a bold move that promised greater access to international trade. Yet, when the French made claims of ownership over sections of the railway within Ethiopian borders in 1902, Menelik swiftly halted construction beyond Dire Dawa. Only when France, Britain, and Italy reached a power-sharing agreement in 1906 did he resume the project, all the while reaffirming Ethiopia’s sovereignty over its territory and infrastructure.

His appetite for innovation didn’t stop with trains. Under his rule, Ethiopia saw the introduction of electricity, the telegraph, telephone, motor vehicles, and plumbing systems, technologies that radically changed urban life in Addis Ababa. He established the first modern bank in the country, the Bank of Abyssinia, and introduced Ethiopia’s first postal service. Even his attempt to replace the widely used Maria Theresa thaler with a national currency revealed a forward-looking leader willing to challenge economic dependency.

Legacy

European envoys and journalists who encountered Menelik were often surprised, not by his power, but by his intellect, accessibility, and depth. British journalist Augustus Wylde described him as kind, sharply intelligent, and remarkably informed, though misled about Britain by biased advisors. Count Gleichen, another European visitor, noted the Emperor’s simplicity, directness, and his willingness to make himself available to the people — a ruler who listened, not one who ruled from afar.

Menelik’s reign, though not without internal strife and opposition, was marked by his ability to blend traditional authority with progressive vision. He was a man firmly rooted in Ethiopia’s ancient legacy, yet his eyes were always fixed on the future.

In the twilight of his reign, Menelik's health sharply declined. A major stroke in 1909 left him mentally unresponsive and politically absent. Empress Taytu briefly stepped in as de facto ruler, but a regency council soon took over, sidelining her influence. Menelik remained physically alive but largely silent until his death on 12 December 1913. His passing, curiously understated, was followed by a quiet burial within palace grounds. Only in 1916 was he reburied at the Ba'eta Le Mariam Monastery, a church he had built himself.

Though never formally crowned, Lij Iyasu was named successor but was ultimately deposed. Power passed instead to Menelik’s daughter, Empress Zewditu, who ascended the throne later that year.

Menelik’s legacy remains a subject of both reverence and reckoning. Hailed as the architect of modern Ethiopia and the victor of Adwa, he also left behind a deeply contested history. For many, especially in southern Ethiopia, his military campaigns brought not unity but devastation. The very figure who inspired African pride and global respect is, for others, a symbol of imperial conquest and oppression. His story, like that of the nation he shaped, remains both towering and complex, echoing through celebration and critique alike.