Mamluks in Egypt: How Slaves Came to Rule a Dynasty

The Mamluks were a group of mostly Qipchak Turks from Central Asia, who ruled Egypt and Syria under a single dynasty from 1250 to 1517. The word Mamluk means “one who is owned” or simply, “slave” in Arabic, and they were so called because they were slave soldiers employed in Muslim armies of the Islamic civilization as far back as the 9^th century. Yet, by the 13^th century, this subjugated group had somehow come out on top by establishing a prominent empire in North Africa and the Middle East.

In this article, we will explore the origins of the Mamluks, their rule in Egypt primarily, the end of their dynasty as well as their attempts at a comeback.

Origins

The practice of integrating Mamluks into the army was started by the Abbasid caliph al-Mutasim in Baghdad, but soon spread throughout the Islamic world. They were forcefully taken away from their families in their youth, and so had no familial ties in their new homelands. Thus, they were rendered solely dependent on their master.

However, the Mamluks would eventually wield the military power bestowed on them as a tool to usurp authority from the legitimate political leaders. Following al-Mutasim’s reign, the Abbasid caliphate fell prey to the Turkish Mamluk generals, who deposed or murdered the caliphs.

The Mamluks were ruthless, which is understandable considering their whole lives were centered around war. They also had a deep sense of loyalty to their lords, although, they would often disregard this loyalty (in relation to non-Mamluks) in order to gain power.

Interestingly, they were unable to pass down wealth or status to their sons, and their sons were also denied the opportunity to serve amongst Mamluks forces—although there were attempts to establish lineages. This meant that the group was regularly replenished with new slaves from external supplies.

The Mamluks had a code of conduct called Furusiyya, which was derivative of three main elements: ‘ulum (science), funun (arts) and adab (literature). Furusiyya emphasized courage, generosity, valor as well as more practical tenets like the management, training and care of their horses, calvary and military tactics and so on.

Rule in Egypt

The Kurdish general Saladin, who gained control of Egypt in 1169, followed the tradition of including a segment of slaves in his army, alongside Kurdish, Arab, Turkmen and other free elements. The tradition was replicated by his successors, including Al-Malik who was said to have purchased the largest number of (mostly Turkish) slaves in order to protect his sultanate both from rivals within the Ayyubid dynasty and from the crusaders.

When Al-Malik died in 1249, there was a struggle for his throne, during which the Mamluk generals murdered his heir and established one of their own, Aybeg, as sultan. From then on, Egypt and Syria were ruled by Mamluks or their descendants for more than 250 years.

The era of Mamluk rule in these territories is generally broken down into two periods: Bahri (1250-1382) and Burji (1382-1517), so named by Western historians to represent the political dominance of the eponymous regiments during these respective periods. The Bahri Mamluks were largely from southern Russia, while the Burgi were mostly Circassians from the Caucasus. Historians generally agree to the assertion that the Mamluk state reached its zenith in the Bahri era, but suffered an extensive decline under the Burji.

Some of the most notable achievements of the Bahri Mamluks were their expulsion of the remaining crusaders from the Levant and their defeat of the Mongols in Palestine and Syria, for which they earned appreciation from all Muslims for saving Arabic-Islamic civilization from destruction. Although, it is unlikely that they had the larger Muslim world at heart, rather than their own goal of reconstituting the Egyptian Empire. The Mamluks also tried to establish their presence in Nubia (in modern-day Sudan and Egypt), to protect Egypt’s rear.

To consolidate their standing in the Islamic world, the Mamluks revived the caliphate, which had been destroyed by the Mongols in 1258, and installed a caliph in the capital city of Cairo. It was with this same motivation that they engaged the rulers of the holy cities of Arabia, Mecca and Medina. The Mamluks were able to restore Egypt as the principal trade and transit route between the Orient and the Mediterranean. This, alongside their support of Egyptian industries and crafts, served as economic fuel for the Mamluks’ success in war and diplomacy.

By the Circassian era of Mamluk rule in Egypt, the dynasty started to suffer (arguably) as a result of the new order of advancement in the state and the army; prior, officials would be promoted primarily based on proven skill in the art of war, but at that time, ethnic affiliation (i.e. Circassian descent) seemed to take pre-eminence. Additionally, the now divided Mamluks were unable to protect their people from the Bedouins’ attacks on trade and agriculture. Worse still, some of the Egyptian population was lost to the bubonic plague which had previously ravaged the Middle East. The combination of these factors crippled the Mamluks from defending Syria against the Turkic conqueror Timur Lenk in 1400.

It wasn’t until 26 years later, under the rule of Sultan Barsbay that internal stability was finally restored in the Mamluk dynasty—albeit briefly. The most devastating economic woe befell on it in 1500, when the Portuguese opened up Europe’s ocean trade and assaulted trade in the Red Sea. Concurrently, the Ottomans expanded into Mamluk territory in Syria.

Then in 1517, the Mamluks lost out woefully to the Ottomans both in Syria and Egypt; the former came out with mere bows, lances and swords, while the latter were armed with field artillery and firearms. From then on till 1798, they would only be a much less significant part of the political structure of Egypt while the Ottomans remained in charge. Nonetheless, they used what was left of their influence to purchase slaves, integrate them in the army, infiltrate the Ottoman ruling class and, eventually, dominate it.

Lingering Power

The new Ottoman Mamluks would then devise a novel system; instead of the former system of grouping themselves into military factions that did not outlive individual members, they created “houses” that perpetuated themselves through their sons. However, these houses would introduce a new kind of instability as the various houses tried to dominate each other. This divisiveness made them vulnerable to subjugation by the Ottoman governors.

Yet, by the end of the 17^th century, when Ottoman power was receding throughout the empire, the Mamluks once again held control of the army, the economy and the government. Istanbul would then recognize the autonomy of the ruling faction of Mamluks such that all they had to do was pay annual tribute to the Ottomans while the Turkish pasha only remained a nominal leader in Egypt. Thus, when Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1978, he met Mamluk armies and a Mamluk state.

In 1811, Mamluk power was finally annihilated by Egypt’s new ruler, Muhammad Ali Pasha of the Ottoman Empire.

Legacy

The Mamluk period’s cultural legacy is mostly seen in historical writing and architecture. Mamluk historians were prolific chroniclers, encyclopedists and biographers—although their works were not exactly innovative. The Mamluks built several religious edifices such as mosques, schools, monasteries and tombs in Cairo, many of which still stand today. Perhaps the most significant of these edifices is the Qalawun complex, which comprises a mausoleum, a madrasa (educational institution) and a hospital. They also produced several religious paraphernalia with intricate designs.