How Ethiopians Fought and Defeated Italians in the Battle of Adwa

Ethiopia is popularly known as one of the two African countries, alongside Liberia, that were never colonised. While there were attempts by Italy, Ethiopia maintained its independence, first through its own might in 1896 and second through intervention by axis powers in World War II. These victories—especially the first—stamped the East African nation as a prominent symbol of Pan-Africanism.

The first triumph was achieved in the First Italo-Ethiopian War, which culminated in the iconic Battle of Adwa on March 1, 1896.

The Battle of Adwa, which took place in the Tigrayan city of Adwa in north-central Ethiopia, was a military clash between the Ethiopian army of Emperor Menelik II and the invading Italian forces. The victory thwarted the Italians’ efforts to build a colonial empire in the Horn of Africa.

Background

From the 1850s, Ethiopia was a coalition of semi-independent kingdoms, which were presided over by the Ethiopian emperor. Following the Scramble for Africa, Italy had its eyes set on establishing colonial power on the continent and was initially awarded Eritrea by Britain. However, this was not met without contention as Ethiopian Emperor Yohannes IV fought the Italians for Eritrea’s coastal regions between 1887-1889.

In 1889, Yohannes IV died, spurring great disorder in the empire as several candidates fought for the throne. Prior to Yohannes IV’s death, Sahle Mariam of Shewa had garnered military strength on the backing of the Italians, who supplied him with funds and modern arms and ammunition. Sahle used this strength to bring smaller Ethiopian kingdoms under his rule, and after Yohannes IV’s death, secure his place on the throne. Thereafter, he took the name Menelik II.

Menelik II and Italy would further cooperate in significant ways. On May 2, 1889, the Treaty of Wichale was signed. It featured Italy’s promise to provide a loan to Ethiopia and the latter’s recognition of Italy’s claim over the neighbouring coastal colony of Eritrea.

The treaty, particularly Article XVII, would later incite strife between Menelik and the Italians based on a linguistic discrepancy. The Ethiopian emperor had interpreted the article as giving Ethiopia the choice to utilise the Italian government in dealing with other foreign powers. On the other hand, Italian premier Francesco Crispi interpreted it as meaning that the African empire would have to act under the Italian government when dealing with foreign powers, intimating the declaration of an Italian protectorate over Ethiopia. Some Italian diplomats claimed that Menelik ditched the initial Amharic text of the treaty in favour of a modified copy, so he could slyly escape the article.

In September 1890, Menelik repudiated the treaty’s vague Article XVII and 3 years later, repudiated the treaty altogether. At this time, the Italians had a heavy military presence in Eritrea, so Menelik began to prepare to combat any impending attempt by the Italians to exert military control. Menelik garnered support from other Tigrayan and Amharic leaders and was able to acquire a solid supply of weaponry and ammunition through partnerships with the French and British.

The First Italo-Ethiopian War

By early 1895, the Italians kicked off their efforts to conquer Ethiopia. The former recorded some successes—such as the Battle of Coatit—at the start of their campaign, but ultimately lost. At the end of 1895, large Ethiopian forces were threatening the Italian outposts. Menelik’s well-armed troops numbered more than 100,000, unbeknownst to the Italians as the emperor had leaked false reports indicating a much smaller number. Menelik also, rather brilliantly, spread rumours painting his forces as divided.

Gen. Orete Baratieri, the Italian governor and military leader of Eriteria, sighted Menelik’s forces on February 7,1896, but held off on his attack. At the time, the Italian army was plagued by inadequate access to food, clothing, weapon supplies and reliable maps. Menelik also faced the danger of running out of food for his troops, so he and his army stayed put, waiting for the Italians to strike first.

On February 28, Crispi, enraged by the hesitancy, sent Baratieri a telegram in order to provoke him into action. The following day, after further discussions with his generals, Baratieri was convinced to go into battle. Still, Barateiri’s decision was clearly poorly thought out as he would lead an army of just between 14,500-17,700 men, based on different estimates, against Ethiopia’s mighty army.

The Italians faced a staggering loss, with over 6,000 of their troops being killed. Majority of the fatalities were Italian, while the rest were Askari forces (European-trained, African troops). Out of the Italian troops who managed to survive, the Ethiopians captured between 3,000 and 4,000 of them. On the Ethiopian side, there were 5,000 fatalities and 8,000 casualties—a significant number, but still a smaller percentage of Ethiopian forces compared to the Italians.

Later that year, the Treaty of Addis Ababa was signed, effectively replacing the Treaty of Wichale. The Italian claim to a protectorate over all of Ethiopia was nullified and Eritrea’s borders were delineated, reducing it to a territory of about 200,000 square km.

Aftermath and Significance of the War

Menelik’s victory over the Italians enabled him to establish a formidable reputation in the eyes of the European powers. While most of Africa struggled with colonial conflicts, Ethiopia thrived and enjoyed peace under Menelik’s reign.

Great Britain and France would later send delegations to Ethiopia to negotiate their own treaties with the African power, while Italian-Ethiopian relations were fairly stable for decades. After their crushing defeat in the Battle of Adwa, the European power had mostly focused on administering the colonies of Italian Eritrea and Italian Somaliland.

However, four decades later, the Italians struck again in what would later be dubbed the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. Now a fascist government, Italy largely hoped to revert the humiliation they faced at the hands of an “uncivilised” African nation. This time around, they came prepared and even successfully captured Adwa—understandably, a very significant victory for them.

Italy collaborated with other League of Nations member states to isolate Ethiopia, effectively rendering the latter helpless. Ethiopia remained under Italian control from 1936 till 1941, when British and Ethiopian troops jointly drove out the Italians from Addis Ababa.

Nonetheless, Ethiopia’s harrowing losses during the second war did not quite eclipse the victory of the former. The Battle of Adwa was so monumental because it was the first time Africans were on the winning side against European powers in a conflict of that magnitude. Moreso, Ethiopia enjoyed more independence than most African nations, thereby serving as a beacon of hope to others.